Publications

Social cohesion has emerged as a powerful hybrid concept used by academics and policy analysts. Academics use the concept to underline the social and economic failings of modernity, linking it to the decline of communal values and civic participation. Policy analysts use it to highlight the social and economic inequities caused by globalization. The desired effect of using this concept is often to influence governments to implement policies that will enhance social cohesion by reducing social and economic disparities. Despite its widespread use, however, statistical measures of social cohesion tend to overlook local, non-Western strategies of social inclusion as well as the social impact of non-Western economic systems, such as the mixed economy typical of many Aboriginal communities in North America. In this paper, we develop a model of social cohesion that addresses these omissions through the use of social indicators that measure both the behavior and perceptions of Inuit living in the Canadian Arctic with respect to the social, cultural and economic conditions of Arctic communities. We explain how and why measuring social cohesion is optimized by combining both culturally-specific and non-specific social indicators.

Inuit populations meet a large portion of their food needs by eating country food in which pollutants are concentrated. Despite the fact that they contain pollutants, the consumption of country food has many health, social, economic, and cultural benefits. A risk determination process was set up in order to help regional health authorities of Nunavik to deal with this particular issue. Based on Nunavik health authorities' objectives to encourage the region's inhabitants to change their dietary habits, and on both the risks and the benefits of eating country food, several management options were developed. The options aimed at reducing exposure to contaminants by either substituting certain foods with others that have a lower contaminant content or by store-bought foods. This article aims at assessing the potential economic impact of these risk management options before being implemented. Relevant economic data (aggregate income and monetary outlays for the purchase of food and equipment required for food production by households) were collected and identified to serve as a backdrop for the various replacement scenarios. Results show that household budgets, and the regional economy, are not significantly affected by the replacement of contaminated foods with the purchase of store-bought meat, and even less so if the solution involves replacing contaminated foods with other types of game hunted in the region. When financial support is provided by the state, the households can even gain some monetary benefits. Results show that public health authorities' recommended changes to dietary habits among the Inuit of Nunavik would not necessarily involve economic constraints for Inuit households.

Since the 1950s, the territory of Québec has been the site of important mining and exploration works. Prior to 1976, mining companies were not required to clean up exploration sites, and consequently there are a large number of abandoned mine and exploration sites where outdated equipment and empty drums has been left, just as the presence of oil and chemical wastes has become of concem for the Inuit populations due to healt and environment hazards. The main challenge of the inventory project has been to develop methods which has enabled the location of the abandoned sites. The paper present the different approaches to the problem, with details about techniques which have turned out to be effective .

During the 1950s the Québec territory situated north of 55th parallel was the site of important mining exploration campaigns, following the discovery of major deposits. Prior to l976, rnany cornpanies did not clean the abandoned site and left a wide array of exploration equipment and utilities for the workers behind them. The objective of this research is to determine the level of importance of the problem of abandoned mining exploration sites in Nunavik. After having tested several methods among which aerial survey and remote sensing, this research is methodologically based on a combination of two techniques : interviews with key informants using topographical rnaps, and the data from the corpus on mining deposits from government sources. ln Nunavik, a total of 595 mining exploration sites that contain equipment, dwellings, vehicles, or other abandoned items were identified. The Inuit and the Naskapi informants identified a total of 445 potential sites. They pointed a total of 379 sites associated directly with mining exploration. The overall number of sites, and the available information about the material they contain is a matter of concerns for Nunavik residents, and for government authorities of all levels. With the inventory, it is now possible to work with a better idea of the scale of the problern of abandoned mining exploration sites. Clearly, with hundreds of sites, this question can no longer be taken as a side problem.

Ce mémoire s'intéresse au changement social au sein de la société inuit à travers un cas d'étude précis: l'approvisionnement alimentaire des ménages. Le champ d'observation est l'Arctique nord-américain. Les données de cette étude proviennent, d'une part, de la littérature portant sur les Inuit et, d'autre part, d'une enquête sur échantillon probabiliste intitulée Households food supply networks in the circumpolar Arctic, dont le questionnaire a été administré dans quatre régions de l'Arctique au cours des années 2000 et 2001. L'analyse de l'ensemble de ces données révèle que le recours au don et au marché sont deux pratiques contribuant au processus d'approvisionnement alimentaire des ménages inuit. Mais cette importance relative du don ne suffit pas cependant à assurer l'essentiel de l'approvisionnement alimentaire des ménages inuit; pour cela, ceux-ci doivent désormais compter sur le marché. Le regard sociologique nous a permis de constater que la société inuit participe encore à une reproduction sociétale d'ordre culturel, mais il semble que l'ordre économique exerce maintenant sur la société un ascendant important.

This article examines current economic practices of the Inuit of Nunavik and the consequences of these practices on social relations. In western societies, recourse to market and increasingly frequent use of money have been identified as major factors related to a decline in household production. These practices are also associated with a reduction of interpersonal dependency and with the emergence of instrumental rationality. In Nunavik, like in many Arctic regions, money and commodities represent an increasing portion of the economic resources of Inuit households. Household production also contributes substantially to their resources. An examination of the Inuit household budget shows a diversity of lifestyles supported by various economic activities and strategies that aim at satisfying material needs of family members. These strategies demonstrate that Inuit are economically rational and make use of monetary calculation. This rationality does not influence all economic behaviours, which are also motivated by traditional values and customary obligations. However, the emergence of diversity in lifestyles indicates the existence of a greater margin of self-determination for individuals.

Ce document vise à fournir aux utilisateurs une explication des concepts et des définitions utilisées dans l'Enquête auprès des peuples autochtones de 2001, qui a été menée de l'automne 2001 au printemps 2002. On y trouve aussi des détails techniques sur l'échantillonnage, le traitement des données, la qualité des donnés, etc. Dans le guide, on explique la relation entre l'Enquête auprès des peuples autochtones et le Recensement de 2001 et on souligne les différences importantes entre les données de ces deux sources. Le document comporte aussi une liste de produits.

L'Enquête auprès des peuples autochtones de 2001 (EAPA) est une enquête postcensitaire incluant les adultes et les enfants ayant déclaré lors du recensement une ascendance autochtone, une identité autochtone, un statut d'Indien inscrit et/ou une appartenance à une bande. Environ 76 000 adultes et 41 000 enfants vivant dans des ménages privés des provinces et des territoires ont été choisis pour participer à l'enquête. Les données ont été recueillies de septembre 2001 à janvier 2002. Ces tableaux contiennent des données sur les raisons pour quitter l'école primaire et secondaire et les raisons pour abandonner les études postsecondaires de la population d'identité autochtone (de 15 ans et plus) vivant hors réserve, pour le Canada, les provinces et les territoires. En outre, on fournit les données de groupes autochtones en particulier (les Indiens de l'Amérique du Nord, les Métis et les Inuits).

L'Enquête auprès des peuples autochtones de 2001 (EAPA) est une enquête postcensitaire incluant les adultes et les enfants ayant déclaré lors du recensement une ascendance autochtone, une identité autochtone, un statut d'Indien inscrit et/ou une appartenance à une bande. Environ 76 000 adultes et 41 000 enfants vivant dans des ménages privés des provinces et des territoires ont été choisis pour participer à l'enquête. Les données ont été recueillies de septembre 2001 à janvier 2002. Ces tableaux contiennent des données sur la santé, l'éducation, les pensionnats et la langue de la population d'identité autochtone (de 15 ans et plus) vivant hors réserve, pour le Canada, les provinces et les territoires. En outre, on fournit les données de groupes autochtones en particulier (les Indiens de l'Amérique du Nord, les Métis et les Inuits) pour quelques variables.

Northern aboriginal communities are widely recognized as having mixed, subsistence-based economies. The chief characteristic of this economy, aside from the contribution of subsistence harvesting and related activities to household well-being, is that the household operates as a "micro-enterprise" that is the basic unit of production as well as consumption. This economic form has persisted into the present day, contrary to the predictions of many social scientists and policy-makers. This paper outlines a model of the household in mixed, subsistence-based economies, and describes its characteristics and activities. While the discussion focuses on northern Canada, the model is thought to apply generally in the circumpolar North. Quantitative measurement of northern aboriginal household characteristics and activities has been limited, however, because national and regional data collection systems are not designed specifically to capture these phenomena. The model is therefore based primarily on the results of in-depth case studies, and the systematic measurement of subsistence harvesting. This paper describes the development, for the first time, of a questionnaire specifically designed to document quantitatively the key characteristics of the household economy as part of a comprehensive survey of living conditions in the circumpolar Arctic.

This chapter outlines factors of change and continuity of food patterns among the Inuit of Northern Quebec. Arguments presented are based on a review of the literature on food acquisition, consumption, and distribution in the circumpolar Arctic over a hundred years. In this period, Inuit food dynamics have evolved along with other important aspects of their social and economic organization. Nutrition-related behaviours and practices have been modified or have disappeared altogether new ones have been integrated, some with success, others creating new problems and constraints. The establishment of trading posts and settlements, and introduction of firearms, and manufactured food products profoundly altered Inuit economics and Inuit ways in this regard, but today's social and food networks are still largely based on a logic and criteria. that were valid a hundred years ago. It is argued that in the Arctic, the basic trends and characteristics of the current Western formal economy are informed and supported in many ways by a continued Inuit rationality.

We present different types of cooperatives in Greenland and Nunavik, Canada, in order to assess two different developments. A first approach to comparisons leads to an anomaly suggesting the necessity of empirical analysis in the two regions. Why is it that Greenland never really managed to create a cooperative movement? Except for consumer cooperatives, the remaining types of supply and worker cooperatives were a failure. There were isolated success stories for a limited period of time, but the general picture remains the same. Most of these cooperatives are liquidated, and we never saw multi-purpose cooperatives established. Quite the contrary took place in Nunavik, in the northern part of Québec in Canada. Here we saw a viable cooperative movement, and everywhere local communities established multipurpose cooperatives. At the same time a strong cooperative association evolved. It seems that cooperative supporting structures are essential to a cooperative success in an Arctic region.

Nutrition surveys conducted in the Arctic indicate major variations in nutrient intake among Inuit from different regions. However, no studies have been undertaken to evaluate the importance of these differences or similarities in term of nutrient intakes. In order to provide a basis for comparison of the different Arctic regions, a profile of food consumption and nutritional patterns for each circumpolar region is required. The main objective of this chapter was to describe Inuit diet and estimate nutritional values for each region (Canada, Alaska, Greenland, Siberia), and to study trends over rime. To do this, an inventory was taken of all nutritional surveys conducted on Inuit populations in the circumpolar Arctic, as well as a review of the different survey methods used, and standardized data compiled. For interregional comparisons, only the most recent and most complete surveys were considered. However, the more dated surveys served to establish temporal trends. Mean consumption leve1s, energy and nutrient intakes were measured according to gender and age. The contribution of traditional and market foods to energy and nutrient intakes were also assessed. Finally, the principal diet changes occurring in Inuit populations in the last decades were put in perspective to identify the ideal conditions in which an optimal diet can be secured.

This chapter discusses a large body of research involving provincial and Federal environmental law within the framework of sustainable development in Nunavik. The objective is to identify the links between environmental protection, economic development, natural resource management, and food security and identify how these links, under Canadian and Quebec law, affect the understanding and resolution of conflict pertaining to sustainable development in the region. A systemic approach is used for the study of sustainable development, in which close attention is paid to the ecological dimensions and their interactions with social and economic variables. Using this perspective, the legal framework for Nunavik is identified, and its effectiveness in ensuring ecosystem viability and stability explored. The results presented in this chapter are preliminary. Finally, our study identifies the politicized nature of research on the legal aspects of sustainable development and prospects tor future research.

In many parts of the Arctic, imported low quality foods seem to have replaced high quality locally produced food. In the case of Greenland, however, another situation is dominating. Here, local informal markets, in existence for a very long time, not only continue to play an important role in the local economy, but also caused the local agenda to be directed to the commercial sector. The issue examined in this paper is the evolution of food markets in Greenland, and the relationship between imported and locally produced food. A major question is how consumer behaviour is reflected in consumption patterns. The study begins with an exploration of how the issue has been treated in the literature. Next is an analysis of the food supply situation in Greenland by means of different statistics sources, with special emphasis on the connection between the formal and the informal sectors in relation to food production and consumption. The main purpose of the paper is to arrive at a general understanding of the problems of market economies in remote regions, and of the dynamics between the commercial and the non-commercial markets in relation to food supply and food consumption patterns. One major conclusion of the study is that the informal market drives the local agenda and consumers' preferences are visible in economies characterized by monopolies, enabling local products to be maintained as important food items.

This article examines the dietary patterns of the Inuit of Nunavik, based on data from a 1992 Government of Quebec survey. Using data primarily from the Food Frequency questionnaire on a sample of 178 women between 18 and 74 years of age, the study investigates the role of various socioeconomic factors and the influence of the socioeconomic status of the household to which each woman belongs. These factors are analyzed in relation to the proportion of traditional or industrial foods consumed by respondents. The study shows that the presence of a male head of the household and, to a lesser extent, access to an income, raise the proportion of country foods in the diet. Other findings reveal that the main mechanisms for the distribution of country foods, such as sharing practices and a community freezer, play a significant role, but do not compensate when the above two conditions are not found in households.

This chapter presents the state of our knowledge about the formal economy of food security in the Arctic. It explains the main characteristics of food markets in different Arctic regions, and addresses such questions as: what businesses are involved (private, public, local, national, international, etc.)? What is the structure of the supply chain (import/export, links from the producers to retail stores)? Is local food sold in the formal market (products of renewable resource exploitation and local manufacture, when available)? Are the food chains well established and reliable, or new and fragile? etc. This is the first time an effort is made to synthesize such issues, usually considered under the single angle of the hunting and fishing production in the Arctic. This work provides solid basis for evaluating this key component of food supply and consumption, even if it concludes that more research has to be done to have a complete picture.

Alaska's Arctic communities have a dynamic mixed economy that is central to understanding food security and sustainable development. In this economy, cash and country food production are mutually supportive. Country foods are vital to nutritional, economic, and cultural development in Alaska's Aboriginal communities. Research in northern Alaska shows that they are widely obtained, consumed, and shared within families and communities. At the same time, imported foods offer a wide array of nutritional choices. However, they are often expensive, their availability can be uncertain, and their quality can vary greatly. This paper describes Alaska's northern most regions and discusses this mixed economy as it relates to food security and safety. It highlights five major issues affecting food security in northern Alaska: subsistence conflicts, contaminants in country foods, global climate change, industrial development and habitat degradation, and animal rights activism. It also points to additional research needs important to understanding Alaska's food security in a circumpolar context.

It is impossible to guarantee food security in the Arctic if problems relating to the protection of the environment on the one hand, and the promotion of a sustainable development on the other, are not taken into consideration by governments and people. As major sources of pollution in the Arctic originate both within and outside the region, the eight Arctic countries must work together to address common concerns. While global problems like the depletion of the ozone layer, transboundary air pollution, and global warming requite global solutions, the establishment of regional programs seems more appropriate to solve problems particular to Arctic countries. From the standpoint of international law, environmental problems and problems relating to sustainable development transcend national boundaries. The role of international law is to provide mechanisms to facilitate cooperation between nation states, negotiate the legal norms, regulate the use of resources, settle disputes, supervise implementation of treaties and amend existing treaties through the introduction of new norms. The object of this chapter is to portray the general framework of international environmental law applicable to the Arctic. As regards problems specific to the circumpolar region, there exists a substantial body of instruments that deal with various aspects of the Arctic environment. In the final report, an attempt will be made to measure the effectiveness of existing treaties and identify the legal gaps to be filled in order to assure food security in the Arctic.

The gradual displacement of endogenous food resources - the reindeer stew - by food items that have exogenous origin and are globally marketed - the pizza -i s discussed by taking the Sami and their subarctic homeland, Sapmi, as an example. First is an examination of how the interrelationship among people, environment, resources, and food production can be linked to population density and carrying capacity in specific ecosystems. Secondly, a summary description of the historical Sami food household, based solely on subarctic fauna and flora resources is provided. Third, the modern process of exogenous food imports is presented by introducing the concepts of distant consumption and de-localization of resources. Finally, these concepts are applied to show the emerging local dependency on external resources and the resulting displacement of local resources with respect to their importance and values, economically and culturally, for Sami society.

This chapter outlines some of the key issues relating to the security of the subsistence rights of the Inuit in Nunavik. It is a part of a broader research question aimed at achieving a better understanding of how food security relates to legal security with regard to access to and use of country-food resources by Aboriginal people. Existing research underscores the importance of subsistence economies in the quest for sustainable development and food security in the Arctic. It also acknowledges the critical role played by Aboriginal land rights regimes in securing access to the land and its renewable resources. This chapter thus ascertains the legal foundations and scope of Inuit subsistence rights in Nunavik under the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement. It also briefly examines how these rights interact with other uses of the land and identifies potential insecurity generating features of the Agreements subsistence regime, which will require further analysis. Aspects of the broader legal environment likely to impact on the security of Inuit subsistence rights are also identified and targeted for more in-depth study.